MLM is also known as the hierarchical linear model, random-effect model, variance-components model, or mixed model ( 10). In this paper, the basic two-level multilevel modeling (MLM) is used to investigate whether there is a relationship between radon and fracking in Ohio. Figure 1 demonstrates the Marcellus and Utica Shale Regions in Ohio ( 8, 9). Another reference portrayed the health and environmental risks of fracking, describing how the groundwater gets polluted through fracking and how fracking causes the radioactive gasses to elevate ( 7). A research study found a statistical significance between first-floor radon concentrations and the natural gas wells drilled nearby home locations in the Marcellus shale in Pennsylvania ( 6). Marcellus shale is known to contain elevated radon levels. The densest deposits of shale in the eastern United States stretches from New York through Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana to Illinois ( 5). In Ohio, shale gas is available in the deposits of Marcellus and Utica shales. Most Eastern United States have the fracking activity in the Marcellus Shale and fracking is also conducted in the Barnett Shale in Texas ( 4). Hydraulic fracturing, also known as “fracking” or “hydrofracking” is a technique that creates fractures in the rock formation and stimulates the flow of natural gas. The designated action limit of indoor radon gas concentration is 4 pCi/l by the USEPA, and the World Health Organization recommended level is 2.7 pCi/l ( 2, 3). The units of radon gas are pico-curies per liter of air and radon gas levels are expressed in alpha particles ( 2). Individuals spend about 90% of their time indoors that exposes them to the radon gas and increases the chances of lung cancer from 3 to 14%. EPA), long- term exposure to radon causes lung cancer, and there are about 21,000 lung cancer deaths every year in the United States ( 1). The primary source of radon gas in Ohio are soil and “Ohio shale.” According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. Radon gas occurs by the natural decay of uranium in soil, water, and rocks. Radon is a highly radioactive, inert, and colorless gas. These findings lend support to the effect of hydraulic fracturing in influencing radon concentrations, and promote public policies that need to be geographically adaptable.
By comparing with urban areas, urban clusters, and rural areas are significant which linked to higher radon concentrations.
DEMOGRAPHICS AROUND FRACKED NATURAL GAS WELLS CODE
Multilevel modeling results show that at the zip code level, distance to fracking wells and population density are significant and negative covariate of the radon concentration.
Two additional zip code variables, namely the population density and urbanicity, are also included as control variables. Euclidean distances between zip code centroid to the 1,162 fracking wells are measured at the zip code level. Individual records include radon concentrations, device types of the test, and seasons. The ORIS data include information on 118,421 individual records of households geocoded to zip code areas. Based on the data from the Ohio Radon Information System (ORIS) from 2007 to 2014 in Ohio, this research uses multilevel modeling (MLM) to examine the association between the incidences of hydraulic fracturing and elevated airborne radon levels. “Fracking” also known as hydraulic fracturing, which is a technology that is used to extract naturally occurring shale gas from the Marcellus and the Utica shales. Extant research that has reported that fracking activity increases the radon levels. EPA), exposure to radon gas is the second leading cause of lung cancer after smoking. 2Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, United StatesĪccording to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.1Department of Geography and Planning, The University of Toledo, Toledo, OH, United States.Yanqing Xu 1, Mounika Sajja 2 and Ashok Kumar 2 *
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